European Economic Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

European Economic Community - Essay Example Three treaty organizations were considered for the creation of the European Communities known under EC since 1992. The European Economic Community, being the processor of the EC, was a treaty between Belgium, France, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and West Germany. It aimed for the economic inclination of the participating counties which would eventually lead to common political goals and institutions. Today the organization numbers 25 members which all fall under the European Union organization. These are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland1. The aim of this paper is to investigate to what extend the European Union has penetrated the economy of each party and to what extend it represents a new legal order meaning the effect the of the common regulations and policies followed on the participant countries. What's more, the prevalence of Community Laws over local Laws is examines and for this matter the Dutch transport firm Van Gend & Loos case is discussed as an example case. All former are sustained through comparison within the EC member countries and comparison to development rates universally. Since European Community is a pillar of the European Union focusing on environmental, social and primarily economical matters, the two terms are used interchangeably for the rest of this paper. Common Policy Issues The first issue to discuss here are the emerging problems of the common momentary policy implemented four year ago by twelve of the fifteen members and how these were tackled by the Community authorities. To start with and moving away from the prevalence issues per se, attaining the deficit goals is not an easy task and there is not much confidence for all countries. Strong economies are expected to perform better than smaller economies that might not achieve the set standards and conflicts within the union boundaries are common to occur. Secondly, the bilateral conversion rates are put into question as to how much these reflect the currency prior to conversion. Thirdly, the core or strong economy countries will be a lot more lucrative in risk taking; in fact they will be a lot more conservative. Interest rate level however on the fast growing countries however will be a lot higher and countries such as Ireland, Portugal, Greece and Spain. The former might encounter great issues when managing their economies (Krijsman, 1998). The entire former sum up to a list of problems the Community had to tackle even before embracing the common monetary policy. Of course the authority of the Community enforced the members to follow the guidelines imposed to them; these however were based on the actual facts and the potential of each member. In any case, the members followed, or are still trying to in case they have not achieved, the set standards imposed by the EC. The EC Facts The European Union focuses on economic and environmental policies on subjects as agriculture, trade, humanitarian aid and taxation policies. The unique property of common economic policy met within the European Union boundaries holds an extra property; all participating countries will fail or succeed. This is the main concern of countries that refuse to join the European Union as Switzerland and Norway that refuse to jo

The nature of crime Essay Example for Free

The nature of crime Essay The nature of crime embodies the offences made against the state representing society and the population. Within this concept is the operation of principles going to the rights of the victim and the accused in the criminal law process. This process encompasses the commission and elements of the crime going to the actus reus (action of the accused), mens rea (intention of the accused) and causal link to make out the crime; the criminal investigation by the police; the criminal trial process under the adversarial system; the standard of proof beyond reasonable doubt; and the verdict to sentencing options available to the judiciary. This can be illustrated in the case of R v Munter (2009) NSWSC whilst demonstrating the causation in the death of a man assaulted by Munter acting on the mistaken belief that this man was breaching water restrictions, but showing that his intention to kill was absent whilst his actions contributed to the outcome. In this case, Munter received a custodial sentence for manslaughter. Summary and indictable offences Criminal conduct is categorised by summary and indictable offences under the Summary Offences Act 1988 (NSW) and the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) respectively according to their severity. A summary offence is a less serious matter heard in the Local Court (before a magistrate generally resulting in a bond, fine or a jail sentence of up to two years. By contrast, indictable offences are more serious matters heard at trial in the District Court (most serious offences of manslaughter, murder and aggravated sexual assault being heard in the Supreme Court) following a committal hearing in the Local Court and before a judge and jury. Offences can be committed against people and property but fundamentally these offences breach the law of the state with sentencing imposed by the state but not necessarily in the interests of the victim. From homicide (murder and manslaughter) to, assault (common or aggravated) and sexual assault these can be contrasted with property and economic offences involving larceny, robbery or ‘break and enter’ or white-collar crimes involving  embezzlement, tax evasion and as can be seen in the case of R v Rivkin (2003) ALR, insider trading in which the accused used confidential stock market information in relation to Qantas shares for personal gain in which he was sentenced to nine months periodic detention. The different categories of crime Categories of crime are branded by the type of offence, jurisdiction (NSW or Cth), the seriousness of the offence (summary or indictable) and the parties to a crime. This can include offences against the person which is reflected as being a serious crime (homicide, assault and sexual assault). The case of Boughey v The Queen (1986) where a doctor strangled his wife during a ‘sex game’ allegedly should have known that the act constituted a ‘reckless indifference to human life’ and therefore was convicted for murder clearly demonstrates this category of crime. Offences against the Sovereign refer to the main offences of sedition and treason within this area. The Vietnam War ‘draft-card burning’ is an effective example which demonstrates the crime of sedition where thousands of American men protested based on the involvement of America’s involvement in the Vietnam War. This led to the case of United States v. O’Brien where both parties argued before the Supreme Court in relation to the concept of sedition where O’Brien was burning his draft-cards at a rally. (Does this have any relation to the Anti-Terrorism Act No.2 (Cth) 2002? and was introduced after 9/11) Economic offences is another area of the criminal law and more significantly, is the largest area of criminal law as it encompasses most common types of crime. This includes crimes against property (larceny, robbery and ‘break and enter’); white-collar crimes (embezzlement, tax evasion and insider trading; and computer offences (hacking, unauthorized accessing, or modification of data). The media article – Fear in the Fast Lane (ABC, 2009) demonstrates a situation of an economic offence and more specifically, hacking. It was based on the Alice Springs Turf Club where hackers accessed the online gambling system and brought it down. Main drug related offences include the possession of a prohibited drug; use of a prohibited drug; cultivation (the growth of plant drugs i.e. cannabis) and the supply of a prohibited drug. Such legislation which has been passed to assist with the enforceability of keeping these types of crimes minimal include the Drug Misuse and  Trafficking Act 1985 (NSW); the Summary Offences Act 1988 (NSW); and the Customs Act 1901 (Cth). Driving associated offences are some of the most commonly committed offences in NSW. Many of these offences will relate to the strict liability offences concept such as speeding. The most common driving related offences include: exceeding the speed limit; driving without a license or while disqualified; ignoring road signs; and driving above the legal blood alcohol limit of 0.05. Public order crimes are offences that relate to acts that are deemed to disturb the public order in some way; i.e. disturbance in public. Some of the most common public order offences can include: obscene, indecent or threatening language in public; possessing a knife in public (with no reason); obstructing traffic; and damaging public fountains or protected places. Preliminary crimes are offences split into two main categories of attempts of an offence and conspiracy. The concept of conspiracy occurs when two or more people plot to commit a crime together. In addition, the failure of an attempted crime can result in the equal possible length of sentence for that particular crime which is demonstrated in Section 344 of the Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) where ‘a person who attempts an offence can be liable for the penalty’. Parties to a crime The concept of parties to a crime relates to the fact that other people can be involved in the act, either before or after the crime. This can effectively be reflected within the preliminary offence of conspiracy. The level of punishment is usually determined by that person’s level of involvement in the crime and indeed there are four main categories of ‘parties to a crime’ which are: principal in the first degree (this is the principal offender); principal in the second degree (present at the crime i.e. encourager); accessory before the fact (someone who helped before the crime); accessory after the fact (someone who helped after the crime i.e. driving a getaway car). A range of factors that may lead to criminal behaviour A range of situational and social crime prevention techniques There are many significant factors which affect criminal behaviour. The scientific study of crime and criminal behaviour is known as criminology. This covers many aspects of why people might become criminals. Firstly, the psychological  factor is relevant during the drug rehabilitation process and particular sentencing programs. Secondly, social groups that people associate with will often influence a person’s attitude and views of acceptable behaviour. For example, an abusive home environment may impact on one’s future life. Thirdly, the economic factor is extremely significant as people from disadvantaged backgrounds (i.e. Sydney’s western suburbs) are more likely to commit crimes. This relates to the impact of poor education and lack of skills. Fourthly, politically, offences against the sovereign or against the state are likely to have some political factors influencing their commission. For Example; the G8 Summit protest or the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Conference are both a major influence. Essentially, it is vital to understand the factors and motivations behind crime as it related to the possible impact of crime prevention (situational and social). Situational crime prevents usually involves one of the two following approaches: firstly, planning and architectural design, which focuses upon the influence of physical environments upon crime; and seconly, focused (situational) approaches, which rest on rational choice theory. Basically, situational crime prevention aims to make it more difficult for criminals to carry out a crime and therefore stop the crime before it is committed. Social crime prevention relates to the prevention of some of the social and economic factors that might contribute to a person committing an offence. This includes the prevention of a poor home environment/parenting; social and economic disadvantage; poor school attendance; early contact with the police and other authorities. Fundamentally, it is progressively being fixed as such youth programs are run to teach dispute resolution skills and social skills that will encourage potential offenders to make better choices about their actions and their futures.

Dangers of Escalation of Commitment in Accounting

Dangers of Escalation of Commitment in Accounting This report analyses the issue of escalation of commitment to a course of action from the perspective of the pharmaceutical industry. Escalation can be defined as a situation where a failing venture is supplied with additional resources beyond the point of feasibility. As such, escalation carries substantial dangers for organisations by generating avoidable economic losses. The report inquiries into the generic causes of escalation by examining subject literature. Accordingly psychological, social, organisational and project-specific factors are identified as common escalation activators. Exploration into the particulars of the said industry categorises profitability issues, market performance concerns, maturing products portfolio alongside development pipeline conditions as features amplifying pharma companies vulnerability to escalation. The point is supported by real-life case examples located in the appendix. Appreciation of escalation causes allows for development of effective prevention policies. The report suggests preventive measures aimed at reducing the occurrence of escalation triggers, such as challenging the individual and social causes. Approaches for reducing other factors impact on decision-making are outlined in the form of strategy alteration as well as process management policies. The report finalises with suggestions on escalating situations management. Statement of Reference The aim of this 2000-word report is to inquiry the causes and dangers of escalation of commitment to a course of action from the perspective of pharmaceutical companies. This report is to assess the dangers of escalation of commitment to a chosen course of action through the perspective of pharmaceutical companies. In order to achieve the aim set, the paper first analyses the definition and threats arising from the phenomenon of escalation. Next, following the framework proposed by Ross Staw (1993) generic causes of escalation are summarised. Subsequently, the report looks at industry- and drug development-specific escalation triggers in an attempt to identify why the pharmaceutical companies are particularly vulnerable to the dangers of escalation of commitment. Then, escalation prevention provisions organised around tackling previously identified triggers are outlined. The report concludes with suggestions concerning the issue of escalating situation management. Escalation of commitment: Definition and dangers Escalation can be defined as a situation where an individual over-commits resources to a failing venture after receiving negative feedback on its performance. Having an option to discontinue, the decision-maker forgoes rational behaviour and devotes more money, time or effort in a false belief that greater involvement will bring the project to successful completion (Staw, 1981). Some examination suggests that escalation as such should not be automatically assigned negative connotation. Low level of employee commitment is also damaging to organisational performance; background factors might justify over-commitment (Heath, 1995). Another view assumes escalation to be a natural feature of the business decision-making that should be treated as an unavoidable expense (Bowen, 1987). The dominant notion supported by extensive research suggests that escalation of commitment should be acted against (Brockner, 1992) because of carrying dangers of: Ultimately leading to multiplication of avoidable losses; Introducing irrational decision-making; Undermining the basic premise of business activity: to maximise gains with minimal costs; Generating substantial opportunity costs Consuming unrecoverable resources, such as time. Appreciation of escalation triggers allows for development of efficient prevention methods aimed at reducing the occurrence of such factors, subsequently protecting the company from the aforementioned detriments. Generic causes of escalation Psychological Initial research suggested that escalation arises primarily from the natural incline of the human being to self-justify behaviour. Supplying the course of action with additional resources serves as unconscious defence technique: the individual reassures him/herself that the original decision made was rational (Staw, 1976). Self-justification need is heightened if the decision-maker holds responsibility for the resource allocation (Staw, 1981), which is typical for investment decision setting. Prospect theory applied to escalation suggests that self-justification is not vital prerequisite for its occurrence. Escalation is induced by the decision-maker using a frame to make decisions under conditions of uncertainty of results. The decision-maker views subsequent decisions in reference to outcomes of initial judgements in order to produce a coherent frame. The negative feedback on the initial resource allocation results in the subsequent distribution being viewed as a choice between definite and possible loss, or a negative frame. Subsequently individuals are prone to escalation by becoming risk-seeking: failing to accept a definite loss even at the cost of incurring greater in the future (Whyte, 1986). How the decision-maker perceives incurred costs, constitutes another escalation trigger (Garland Newport, 1991). Following prospects theory, the sunk costs effect suggests that costs incurred viewed in relation to the total expenditure induce a negative frame, leading to escalating behaviour. Linked with that, the dislike of waste provides another motivation to supply the course of action further, rather than face a definite loss (Arkes Blumer, 1985). Interestingly, excitement about the project outcomes (Schmidt Calantone, 2002), and sunk-time effect ­ (Navarro Fantino, 2009) aid escalation occurrence. Social Importantly, the aforementioned need to justify the correctness of behaviour is not limited to the individual and applies to the wider social context (Staw, 1976). Maintaining an image of a consistent decision-maker among peers proves equally, or more, important to meeting self-justification needs. The desire to obtain social approval is exacerbated under insecurity of the social status in the group, or in a presence of an adverse crowd (Staw, 1976). In such instances the individual is likely to model his/her behaviour to reproduce the model endorsed by the audience (Brockner, 1992). As the group replicates leader stereotypes that emphasize the need for decision-makers to be consistent in actions in order to be perceived as competent (Staw Ross, 1980), the individual aspiring to achieve consistency with the stereotypical image will over-commit not to distort others belief in their leadership potential, and to reaffirm position in the group structure. Intra- or inter- group competition can indicate escalation. The focus is shifted away from objective assessment of the possible outcomes of a chosen decision onto the motivation to win. The need to do whatever it takes to get a step ahead of the competitors introduces scope for irrationality and escalation as such irrational behaviour is common to both of the parties involved (Bazerman, 2006). Organisational Projects receiving strong organisational support are prone to escalation (Pfeffer, 1981 in Ross Staw, 1993), as the decision-makers identify them with the existence of organisation itself. Furthermore, the centrality of the project to organisational values and its entrenchment in the organisational structure account for the projects being continued despite reservations (Goodman et al., 1980 in Ross Staw, 1993). Unwinding the supporting infrastructure might threaten the very basis of working organisational structure; induce change that is often associated with risks and dangers. The costs of acceptance of status quo are perceived as minor to the potential dangers of modified environment. Maintaining reputation and consistency between values and actions prove to constitute forces inducing over-commitment from organisational perspective (Ross Staw, 1993). Companies having publicly announced success might be more hesitant to admit failure and discontinue with the course of action. Project-specific High development costs and risky market performance of the finished product, the acceptance of failures and losses as a feature of the RD process, and reluctance of decision-makers to emotionally detach from the prolonged projects account for greater escalation exposure of RD projects (Schmidt Calantone, 2002). Low potential reusability (Staw Ross, 1993) of the generated output results in reluctance to discontinue the venture in order to avoid waste. Negative framing induces the perception of exit costs, such as compensation packages as definite waste, leading to escalation. The advancement of the project on a timeline constitutes another threat due to sunk-cost effect (Navarro Fantino, 2009). Projects reaching advanced stages of development would be discontinued reluctantly because of accumulation of used resources, including time, and the perception of imminent availability of the anticipated gains. Industry-specific Escalation Triggers Profitability issues Recent data suggests that pharmaceutical companies are to face decline in profit figures in forthcoming years (Datamonitor, 2010). This can be attributed to steadily increasing drug development costs: the costs producing the final product exceed $1 billion, with as few as 20% of successful product entries achieving the break-even point (Innovation.org, 2010). Estimates suggest that pharmaceutical companies should launch two to four drugs annually to maintain steady profit margins (Gassmann Reepmeyer, 2005). However, due to high attrition rates the overall success of organisations strategy is often reliant on the success of a single project (Kola Landis, 2004). These factors pressurise the companies to continue with projects and disregard arising reservations to maintain profitability. Maturing product portfolio The reduction in new component approvals can be partially attributed to strengthening drug registration requirements. Other explanation lies in the controversial innovation deficit experienced by the industry (Schmid Smith, 2004). Lower innovation figures account for pharmaceutical companies being faced with maturing product portfolio. Consequently, the companies engage in a variety of innovative projects overly-optimistically assessing their revenue potential, failing to discontinue when reservations arise. Eventually, the companies face greater losses as the projects fail to generate anticipated revenues, but incurring avoidable losses (Appendix: Dimebon case). Concerns for market performance The pressure to persist is further reinforced by the need to be consistent with companys vision (Ross Staw, 1993). Endorsing the projects demonstrates consistence with the mission statement; reaffirms the reputation as well as reassures the market and investors on following the profitable trail. However, forgoing ethical and safety aspects of drug delivery over concerns for market performance and cost-cutting proves detrimental (Appendix: GSK Puerto Rico Plant). Development pipeline conditions The specificity of the drug development pipeline further adds to the vulnerability to the dangers of escalation of commitment. The drug development time is estimated to surpass 10 years, with the costs amplifying as the project progresses (Accenture, 2007). This suggests heightened emotional attachment and excitement towards results, as well as existence of supporting infrastructure as powerful motivators of escalation. Attrition figures reveal that escalation is common in the industry as the most projects are withdrawn after reaching the most cost intensive stage of advanced clinical trials that precedes the registration process; or are recalled after reaching the patient due to safety concerns that have been ignored earlier on (Kola Landis, 2004) (Appendix: Avandia case). Escalation: how to prevent it? Tackling individual and social causes Perhaps introduce appraisal procedures emphasizing ones ability to build on past actions, rather than progression of the project. This will reduce managers fear of negative consequences if the project fails. Confidential treatment of sensitive matters, such as personal failures, will reduce the reputation retention motivation for escalation (Simonson Staw, 1992). Consider developing positive leader stereotypes supported by convergent organisational values emphasizing the rationality of decision-making. Furthermore, introducing panel decision-making procedures contribute to preventing escalation by reducing individual responsibility for the decision taken (Simonson Staw, 1992; Schmidt Calantone, 2002). Inviting members of relevant departments allows for assessing the projects success potential from a variety of angles limiting scope for escalation to arise. Ponder developing neutral decision frames by rotating managers in charge of the project so that different individuals held responsibility for initial and subsequent resources allocations (Simonson Staw, 1992). Additionally, foster for emotional detachment from sunk costs by introducing training in mental budgeting (Heath, 1995). Project evaluation and management Clear and achievable targets should be set out at the project initiation alongside exit points at various stages of progression (Schmid Smith, 2004). Measuring projects performance against set aims; assessing the efficiency with which resources yield results at the selected points allows for early estimation whether the project is following the anticipated pathway, thus allowing to avoid greater losses. Consider adopting attrite early strategy (Schmid Smith, 2004) as companys motto. Consider participation in multi-stakeholder analysis projects evaluating the potential value of innovative drug projects at early stages of development such as the consultations conducted within the European Healthcare Innovation Leadership Network (AstraZeneca, 2010). Ponder involving external parties in the project (Schmidt Calantone, 2002). Perhaps engage auditors to assess the success projects success potential at its outset or to devise effective contingency planning. This will ensure objectivity and independence of organisational politics. Consider outsourcing the project to subcontractors to avoid its institutionalisation in the organisational structure. Alternating middle-to-long-term strategy Consider renewing existing product portfolio and engagement in me-too drug developments. This ensures steady revenue generation from inelastic demand segments (Ganuza et al., 2009) and carries less risk comparing to reliance on anticipated gains from innovative compounds. Estimations suggest that involvement in drug-related sectors or focusing on advancement in licensed compounds constitute a potentially profitable alternative (Schmid Smith, 2004). Consider GSKs involvement in healthcare brands as an example. Managing Escalation Suppose the escalating situation arises, consider replacing the project manager or establishing panel assessment in order to remove the negative thinking frame, rid off the potential self-justification needs and assess realistically projects success potential (Simonson Staw, 1992). Consequently, ponder engaging external consultants to develop plausible solutions and introduce other point of view independent of the political and organisational influence. Otherwise, evaluate potential salvage value of the project towards establishing uses other than the initial one anticipated (Appendix: Viagra case). Furthermore, consider whether external financial support for advanced research is available; and if is feasible to use towards accomplishment of the projects aims. Otherwise, ponder engaging in partnership with a company undertaking research in similar compound in order to combine knowhow and reduce costs. Appendix Avandia case Recent withdrawal of GSKs highly innovative and best-selling diabetes drug, Avandia, in EU was caused by the linkages with deaths by heart failures among the patients on the medication (FT.com, 2010b). Allegedly, the company was aware of the severity of adverse effects, however launched the drug to the market (Avandia Recall News, 2010). Estimations suggest that GSK could face between $1.1bn and $6bn in compensation costs (FT.com, 2010a) that could have been avoided had the company ceased the project when safety concerns were brought to light. Additionally, bad publicity incurred after the allegations surfaced resulted in fall of GSK share prices, and the company facing negative profit accounts (FT.com, 2010c). Dimebon case Pfizer has recently withdrawn from advanced clinical trials (undertaken in partnership with Medivation) of highly anticipated Alzheimers disease cure, Dimebon, after the drug exhibited no promising therapeutic results (MedScape Medical News, 2010). The reservations about the curative properties of the compound have been raised at early stages of the process. It is assumed that the logic behind Dimebons miraculous effects was never properly investigated. Furthermore, similar compounds failed in previous trials (ABC News online, 2010). Escalating behaviour in such case could be linked to Pfizer losing patent rights the currently marketed Alzheimers treatment, Aricept and was in need of a profitable replacement. As a result of failure to investigate and evaluate promptly, Pfizer has incurred $725 million in RD costs (the Economist.com, 2010). GSK Puerto Rico Plant case GSK is reported to pay $750m in penalty payment to US government and other claimants following allegations on manufacturing malpractice and failure to adhere to safety standards in production plant in Puerto Rico. The allegations regarding mal-adjusted doses of active ingredients and ineffectiveness of drugs submitted to government programmes were revealed by a former employee and resulted in the company being charged with a criminal offence (Wall Street Journal Law Blog, 2010). Viagra case Initially Viagra was developed as a cordial drug aimed at decreasing blood pressure and preventing cardiac arrests. Clinical trials unexpectedly revealed potentially exploitable and marketable properties of the drug: high effectiveness in fighting erectile dysfunction in men. In the six months following its launch as a revolutionary treatment, in 1998 Viagra worldwide sales have exceeded  £300 million (BBCnews.com, 1999).

Character-defined Destiny Essays -- Literature Heroic Epics Essays

Character-defined Destiny The Greek poet Homer established the heroic epic literary genre more than two-and-a-half millennia ago with the composition of two voluminous works of art, the Odyssey and the Iliad. From its inception, the heroic epic cast human fate as a type of whimsical recreation for the gods. In fact, the word fate was adopted from the name of the Greek gods in charge of spinning the thread of human life and then cutting it when a person’s destiny had been fulfilled. Hence, a person’s fate in the Homeric epics was largely determined by providence, and a person’s individual actions had little bearing on what became of him or her. We see a new understanding of fate begin to take form in the two primary heroic epics of thirteenth century German literature. The story of Parzival introduces the role of individual maturation in the fulfillment of one’s destiny, notwithstanding its predetermination by God through birthright. The Nibelungenlied, on the other hand, suggests that predestination is the result of the inevitability of one’s own idiosyncrasies: one acts in accordance with one’s own character traits and cannot act otherwise. Both understandings of fate, however, afford man a much larger share in the determination of his own destiny than the Homeric epics ever did and, as such, can shed light on the evolving notion of the â€Å"heroic† informing each work. The story of Parzival and his quest for the Holy Grail was first told by French author Chrestien de Troyes in the 12th century; naturally, the fate of Parzival would have already been well known to Wolfram von Eschenbach’s 13th century audience. Then the focus of the epic is certainly not Parzival’s destiny, but his development and maturation throughout th... ... The reason for this is that Gawan (and the code of chivalry he represents) regards his relationship with God in feudal terms, expecting reward in return for service. Even though Parzival once fell from grace and the favor of the round table, he was able to gain redemption through God with the help Trevrizent. By confessing his sins before God and atoning for his trespasses, Parzival was thus able to attain a higher level of honor. Redemption is the pivotal piece of the heroic puzzle that the society of the Nibelungenlied lacks. In Parzival there is no sense of the imminent doom that pervades the Nibelungenlied, because of the society’s steadfast belief in God’s eternal mercy. And, as long as the society of the Nibelungenlied remains bereft of the potential for redemption, it will remain entangled in its own type of Atreus curse and doomed for self-annihilation.

Essay example --

Costa Rica is a small, democratic country, located in Central America. Nicaragua is to the north of Costa Rica and Panama to the south and it is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country is very small, only about 32,000 square miles and is slightly smaller than the state of West Virginia (CIA, para. 2 2013). This beautiful country only covers about 0.03% of the earth’s surface, yet contains about 5% of the biodiversity in the world (Visit Costa Rica, para. 2). The climate is tropical and subtropical and has four volcanoes, two of which are still active (CIA, 2013, para. 2). The population of Costa Rica is 4,805,000 (WHO, 2009). The population growth is roughly 1.27% annually (CIA, 2013, para 3). About 64% of the country’s population lives in urban areas (CIA, 2013, para. 3). Although Central America is considered poor by many, Costa Rica’s poverty rate is lower than its neighboring countries – it is about 20% percent (CIA, 2013, para. 3). In 2012, the gross domestic profit (GDP) was $59.79 billion, or $12,800 per capita (CIA, 2013, para 3). A considerable amount of the country’s income comes from agricultural exports and tourism (CIA, 2013, para. 5). Agriculture makes up about 6.2% of the GPD and industry makes up about 2.5% of the (CIA, 2013, para. 5). Costa Rica was first settled in 1522 (Michigan State University (MSU), n.d., para. 1). It was settled as a colony by the Spanish in 1563 (CIA, 2013, para. 1). In 1821 along with the other provinces in Central America, it proclaimed its independence from Spain (MSU, n.d., para. 3). Then in 1838 Costa Rica proclaimed itself sovereign (CIA, 2013, para. 1). In 1899 Costa Rica began its democracy by having the first true e... ...Many poor countries suffer much worse public health problems and disasters than the people of Costa Rica, but they are very fortunate to have the health system that they have in place. In 2011, Costa Rica’s health expenditure on health care was 10.9% of the GDP (CIA, 2013, para. 3). This is one of the highest in the world. The Ministry of Health is able to focus on influencing public policies, create policies to protect the health of the people and provide guidance. They are always investigating new trends in medicine and finding the best way to help the Costa Rican public. It seems that the focus of the Ministry of Health and the CCSS is more about the care and the health of the people, even though the health expenditure is so high compared to most other countries. They do have this money to spend partly because of the lack of any military forces to finance.

Replication Of Human Pheromones :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Sexual Or Sexist? Replication Of Human Pheromones From the elixer in Love Potion Number Nine to the Orgasmatron in Orgazmo, the media reflect a popular fascination with the idea of an object that can control other people's sexual desires and behaviors. On a similar but dorkier note, I have occasionally heard at Haverford someone attribute a sexual "lucky streak" to the influence of pheromones. In our well-educated but socially awkward mind frame, we have hit on a more promising possibility than magic potions or radar guns. From the Greek for "excitement carrier", pheromones carry chemical messages between members of the same species (2). Present in many animals and often responsible for aspects of mating behavior, the idea of pheromones in humans has in recent years been a subject of interest. The idea of pheromone perception as a "sixth sense" is intriguing, as it means our behavior is influenced by input from outside stimuli that we cannot consciously perceive. Evidence points to the output by and influence on humans of natural ph eromones, and these pheromones are under attempt at imitation by commercial products. What are the possible ramifications of such developments? Experimental evidence also shows differences in the way men and women respond to pheromones, and the possible implications of these differences on gender roles is the aspect of human pheromone research that interests me most. These chemical signals are detected in the vomeronasal organ, or VNO, which is present in the noses of most species of vertebrates. In other mammals, the VNO is located in a longitudinal bulge at the base of either side of the nasal septum (4). Humans lack this bulge marking the position of the VNO, and although there are nerve bundles running from the human VNO to the brain, it is still unclear whether they contain actual sensory neurons or just autonomic nerves. Unlike that in animals, the human VNO does not have an obvious sensory epithelium; however, it contains cells that are considered to be bipolar receptor neurons. The human VNO is thought to be stimulated by airborne chemicals, as opposed to stimuli dissolved in mucus (3). Although most exploration of the possibilities of human pheromone perception has happened recently, scientists have known about the human VNO since 1703, when Dutch surgeon Roysch discovered it in the nose (2). Since then the VNO has been commonly thought to be present only in fetuses, disappearing over the course of prenatal development.

Client Paper Essay

Human service professionals, or helpers, will likely work with many different clients, each with their own set of problems. These problems can range from physical abuse and neglect, aging issues including death and dying, and a number of other issues concerning the basic needs of life. Problems can also encompass the many different situations people find themselves in either as a result of life choices or out of no fault of their own. These problems may include homelessness, combat veteran issues, and mental illness. Whatever the problem or problems are, it is the responsibility of the helper to use a wide range of skills to assess client needs, create a treatment plan, and offer resources and emotional support to the client as they accomplish the goals included in the treatment plan. These skills include communication, empathy, compassion, patience, analytical skills, and teamwork. A range of problems faces human services clients â€Å"Problems for clients are rarely single issues, and the human service professional should approach each client with the expectation of more than one problem.† (Woodside & McClam, 2011, p. 131) Every problem that a client presents with cannot be predicted. In fact, client problems encompass a wide range of needs and circumstances. For example, a client who is struggling with domestic violence may also have a need for mental health support. A client with mental health issues may also be experiencing a lack of food, clothing or shelter. The problems facing clients are very broad and it is helpful to better understand them. Problems facing children and families include physical and sexual abuse, poverty, lack of a healthy home, or little education. Children are especially vulnerable as they cannot provide for themselves. Although â€Å"[t]he best place to serve kids is in their home and with a family,† there may be a necessity for placement in foster care or, in some c ases, adoption (Moffat, 2011, p. 5). The elderly also face  unique problems such as lack of mobility, losing their independence, and end of life issues. When the elderly can no longer care for themselves, finding in-home care or placement in assisted living or nursing home facilities becomes the focus. In addition, the elderly may struggle with some of the basic needs of life such as food, shelter and clothing. Immigrants, veterans, and people with disabilities face other problems in the human service field. Immigrants struggle with adapting to a new culture in a new country as well as learning a new language. Immigrants may have problems with finding employment, housing, and legal help, as well. Veterans need assistance with adjusting to civilian life including adjusting their skill sets to match employment opportunities. Combat veterans especially struggle with physical and mental disabilities and are in need of appropriate services for rehabilitation. Disabled people face challenges in personal care as well as employment, including issues with rehabilitation and adapting to their disabilities. The need for residential or group care facilities may also be at issue for the disabled community. Problems with substance abuse and addiction, mental illness, and clients with criminal records also exist. Many of these problems co-exist in a client’s life and need to be addressed as a whole. â€Å". . . the client is an individual comprised of psychological, social, economic, educational, vocational, and spiritual dimensions and possibly will have needs in many of those areas.† (Woodside & McClam, 2011, p. 132) Specific helping skills can be used with clients Essential to the helping process is knowledge and practice of professional and interpersonal skills that help the human service professional in effectively addressing the needs of clients. These skills include communication, empathy, compassion, patience, analytical skills, and teamwork. â€Å"Chief among these are interpersonal and communication skills, because more workers deal directly with a variety of people† (Moffat, 2011, p.9). The work of human service professionals centers on building relationships of trust with the client. It is the responsibility of the helper to facilitate effective communication. Listening is vital to the process. In order to fully grasp the client situation, the helper needs to observe both the verbal and nonverbal messages. Listening involves paying  attention to both words and actions as they go hand in hand in understanding the total message being given. G.E. Egan introduced the SOLER concept for responsive listening. Learning this concept c an be very useful to the human service professional (Egan, 2010). Details of the SOLER concept are illustrated in the following table: S Face client Squarely O Adopt an Open posture L Lean toward the person E Maintain good Eye contact R Try to be relatively Relaxed In addition to the SOLER method, paying attention to vocal tone and speech rate, and verbal tracking of the client’s message will exhibit attending behavior and help the communication process (Ivey, Ivey & Zalaquette, 2009). The helper can encourage the client to discuss their issues openly by not changing the subject they have chosen. Effective listening shows compassion for the client and creates an opportunity to show empathy and patience, additional skills that are essential to the success of the human service field. Clients in the human service field come from a variety of situations. Their values and belief systems vary widely as much as their problems do. In order to effectively help people, helpers need to develop acceptance and understanding of these differences. Unconditional acceptance of the client is essential to the success of treatment. Helpers need to see the situation and experience feelings from the perspective of their client. Patience is necessary for the h elping process as there are likely to be setbacks or resistance to the treatment plan. Helpers should learn to adapt their approach as the situation changes; which leads to the skill of critical thinking. â€Å"The ability to think creatively helps workers determine ways to get around hurdles that interfere with clients’ efforts to succeed† (Moffat, 2011, p.10). Throughout the helping process, a variety of changes is bound  to occur. Whether these are positive or negative changes, client and human service professional must work together to deal with them and continue to move forward with the assistance process. Using analytical and problem-solving skills, helpers can overcome the roadblocks to treatment and continuously work towards solutions. Treatment often involves networking with a number of other professionals and utilizing a variety of resources. Being able to work well as a team is another essential skill for human service professionals. Psychologists, Social Workers, Mental Health Facilitators and Counselors are all participants in the work of h uman services. Using communication, empathy, compassion, patience, analytical skills, and teamwork, the helper can effectively recognize and define the variety of client problems that exist and work with them towards accomplishing the goal of the helping process, which is to encourage responsibility and promote self-help. References Egan, G.E. (2010). The skilled Helper: A problem management and opportunity development approach to helping (9th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Ivey, A. E., Ivey, M. B., & Zalaquett, C. P. (2009). Intentional interviewing and counseling: Facilitating client development in a multicultural society (7th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Moffat, C. (2011). Helping those in need: Human service workers. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 55(3), 22-32. Woodside, M., & McClam, T. (2011). An introduction to human services (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage.